March 2024 LIP of the Month

The 2770-2750 Ma Parauapebas LIP of the Carajás region, Amazonian craton: characteristics and links with metallogeny

Camille Rossignola*, Paul Yves Jean Antoniob, Francesco Narduzzic, Eric Siciliano Regod, Romário Almeida de Souzae, Marco A. L. Silvaf, Pascal Philippotb

aUniversità degli Studi di Cagliari, Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042 Monserrato, Italy

bGéosciences Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Université des Antilles, Montpellier, France

cDipartimento di Matematica, Informatica e Geoscienze, Università degli Studi di Trieste, Via Weiss 8, 34128 Trieste, Italy

dScripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA

eInstituto de Geociências e Engenharias, Universidade Federal do Sul e Sudeste do Pará – UNIFESSPA, Folha 17, Quadra 04, Lote especial, Nova Marabá, Marabá, Pará, 68505-080, Brazil

fApplied Isotope Research Group, Departamento de Geologia, Escola de Minas, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Rua Diogo de Vasconcelos, 122, 35400-000 Ouro Preto – MG, Brazil

1. Introduction

The Amazonian Craton (Fig. 1A) represents one of the largest cratons on Earth and comprises several tectonic provinces corresponding to different blocks that accreted together during the Proterozoic. Most of these blocks are made up of Proterozoic continental crust, and the only tectonic province made up of Archean crust defines the Carajás Province, which forms a large triangular-shaped area located to the southeast of the Amazonian Craton (Fig. 1B).

Despite decades of investigations, the tectonic and magmatic evolution of the Carajás Province remains poorly defined. Several Meso- to Neoarchean crustal formation episodes have been identified in the Carajás Province, with a significant magmatic event occurring at ca. 2.75 Ga, corresponding to a large igneous province known as the Parauapebas LIP (Rossignol et al., 2022). Its characteristics and links with metallogeny are briefly reviewed hereafter.


Figure 1. Geological framework.

A. Main tectonic elements of South America. B. Location of the Carajás Province.

2. Geological setting

The basement of the Carajás Province consists mainly of Mesoarchean polymetamorphic tonalitic to granodioritic gneisses and migmatites with protolith ages ranging from ca. 3080 to ca. 2820 Ma (Feio et al., 2013; Machado et al., 1991; Moreto et al., 2015; Pidgeon et al., 2000). Around ca. 2.75 Ga, extensive mafic magmatism produced a 4 to 6 km thick basaltic referred to as the Parauapebas Formation (Fig. 2; Lacasse et al., 2020; Machado et al., 1991; Mansur et al., 2020; Martins et al., 2017; Olszewski et al., 1989; Toledo et al., 2019; Trendall et al., 1998; Wirth et al., 1986). Layered ultramafic and mafic intrusions, as well as A-type granitoids, were also emplaced during this magmatic event (Feio et al., 2013; Machado et al., 1991; Mansur and Ferreira Filho, 2016; Marangoanha et al., 2020, 2019b, 2019a; Sardinha et al., 2006; Siepierski and Ferreira Filho, 2020).

The Parauapebas Formation is conformably overlain by the Carajás Formation, which is mainly made up of banded iron formations (BIFs), minor black shales, and granular iron formation (Fig. 2; Rossignol et al., 2023). The deposition of the BIFs was mediated by anoxygenic photosynthetic organisms, and an influx of high-temperature hydrothermal fluids into seawater is supported by extreme europium anomalies in BIFs throughout the basin (Rego et al., 2021). The interlayering of volcanic rocks and BIFs shows that the Carajás Formation was deposited, at least in part, coevally with the Parauapebas Formation (Gibbs et al., 1986; Martins et al., 2017). The Carajás Formation is overlain by the Igarapé Bahia Group, which contains BIF layers up to 10 m-thick towards its base (Melo et al., 2019).


Figure 2. Main units of the Carajás Province.

Age constraints: 1: Machado et al. (1991); 2, 3: Trendall et al. (1998); 4: Rossignol et al. (2023); 5: Rossignol et al. (2020); 6: Perelló et al. (2023).

3. The Parauapebas Large Igneous Province

3.1. Characteristics

Volcanic rocks of the Parauapebas Formation commonly comprise mm- to cm-size amygdales commonly filled with quartz, calcite and chlorite (Fig. 3). Their primary mineral assemblage consists predominantly of clinopyroxene and plagioclase with minor quartz, K-feldspar, ilmenite, magnetite, and rare pyrite, titanite and zircon (Martins et al., 2017).


Figure 3. Basalts of the Parauapebas Formation.

Left: basalt with large, elongated vesicles filled up with chlorite and calcite. Right: the contact between the spilitized basalts of the Parauapebas Formation and BIFs of the Carajás Formation.

About 90 % of the volcanic rocks are subalkaline basalts and andesites with calc-alkaline affinity (Fig. 4A; Lacasse et al., 2020; Martins et al., 2017). Minor (~ 10 %) porphyritic dacites, rhyodacites, and rhyolites are also present with phenocrysts of plagioclase, quartz, and rare ferromagnesian minerals (Fig. 4A; Lacasse et al., 2020; Olszewski et al., 1989). Basic to intermediate volcanic rocks (45 < SiO2 ≤ 57 wt%) may have a depleted or enriched mantle source or a combination of both with assimilation of parts of the Amazonian Craton Archean basement (i.e., granitoids) while undergoing fractional crystallization (Fig. 4B; Lacasse et al., 2020).


Figure 4. Geochemical characteristics of volcanic rocks of the Parauapebas Formation.

A. Classification diagram. Data from Lacasse et al. (2020). B. Petrogenetic modeling for the Parauapebas basalts. AFC: assimilation and fractional crystallization. F: melt fraction. AFC modeling is re-drawn after Lacasse et al. (2020).

Here we review the characteristics of this magmatic event to assess whether or not it can be classified as a LIP according to the definition of (Bryan and Ernst, 2008), that is a “magmatic province with areal extent > 105 km2, igneous volume > 105 km3 and maximum lifespans of ∼50 Myr that have intraplate tectonic settings or geochemical affinities, and is characterized by igneous pulse(s) of short duration (∼1–5 Myr), during which a large proportion (> 75%) of the total igneous volume has been emplaced” (Table 1). The Parauapebas Formation covers a large areal extent of the Carajás Province, and inliers of basaltic rocks are distributed over > 370 km long strike. Assuming a radial distribution of basaltic rocks, the Parauapebas Formation would have covered an area larger than 105 km2, consistent with that of a LIP (Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Ernst, 2014). In addition, the actual extent of Parauapebas Formation is likely larger because the Carajás Province continues beneath the younger sedimentary and volcanic rocks to the west (Martins et al., 2021). The volume of the Parauapebas basalts is large enough to correspond to a LIP (>105 km3; Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Ernst, 2014). The overall duration of magmatism of the Parauapebas magmatic event lasted less than 50 Myr and is also consistent with a LIP (Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Ernst, 2014). Volcanic eruptions occurred during a rather short time span, between ca. 2770 Ma and ca. 2750 Ma (Fig. 5; Machado et al., 1991; Martins et al., 2017; Olszewski et al., 1989; Toledo et al., 2019; Trendall et al., 1998; Wirth et al., 1986), further supporting a LIP origin for the Parauapebas basalts. Intrusive rocks were emplaced during a slightly longer time interval, between ca. 2760 Ma to ca. 2730 Ma (Fig. 5; Barros et al., 2009; Feio et al., 2013, 2012; Machado et al., 1991; Marangoanha et al., 2020, 2019a; Sardinha et al., 2006).


Figure 5.Frequency distribution of zircon U-Pb dates of rocks from the Parauapebas Large Igneous Province.

After Rossignol et al. (2023) and references therein.

Additional attributes suggest that the Parauapebas magmatic event might be classified as a LIP (Table 1). These include (i) a mafic-dominant composition of magmatic rocks (Lacasse et al., 2020), (ii) an intraplate tectonic setting (Feio et al., 2012; Lacasse et al., 2020; Martins et al., 2017; Olszewski et al., 1989; Tavares et al., 2018; Toledo et al., 2019), (iii) the occurrence of several layered mafic-ultramafic intrusions (Machado et al., 1991; Mansur et al., 2020; Siepierski and Ferreira Filho, 2020), and (iv) A-type granitoids that might correspond to subordinate high temperature silicic magmatic rocks documented in most LIPs (Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Ernst, 2014).

These overall characteristics thus suggest that this magmatic event corresponds to a LIP (Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Ernst, 2014), referred to as the Parauapebas LIP after the name of the main city in this aera (Rossignol et al., 2022).

Table 1. Main features of the Parauapebas magmatic event and comparison with LIPs’ characteristics.

LIP characteristics

Parauapebas volcanics and associated intrusive rocks

Additional remarks

Spatial extent > 105 km2

Distribution of inliers of Parauapebas volcanics over a > 370 km long strike. Assuming a radial distribution encompassing all outliers, the area covered by the basalts of the Parauapebas Formation is above 105 km2.

Minimum areal extent because Parauapebas volcanics are covered to the west by the Uatumã SLIP and truncated to the East by the Araguaia Belt

Volume of magmatic rocks > 105 km3

Thickness of the Parauapebas Formation comprised between 4 to 6 km (Olszewski et al., 1989; Lacasse et al., 2020). Assuming a radial distribution and a thickness of 4 km gives a volume much higher than 105 km3

The thickness of Parauapebas is poorly constrained. The value estimated here is likely a minimum estimate, because the volume of intrusive rocks is not taken into account and the spatial extent of basaltic rocks is likely larger than the one considered here.

Duration of magmatism < 50 Ma

Most of the Parauapebas volcanics were outpoured during a ~ 20 Myr interval, from ca. 2770 Ma to ca. 2750 Ma (Wirth et al., 1986; Olszewski et al., 1989; Machado et al., 1991; Trendall, 1998; Martins et al., 2017). Associated intrusive rocks were emplaced from ca. 2760 Ma to ca. 2730 Ma (Machado et al., 1991; Sardinha et al., 2006; Barros et al., 2009; Feio et al., 2012, 2013).

  

Pulsed nature of magmatism

Mixture model result indicates that zircon grains deriving from the Parauapebas volcanics were produced during a short-lived magmatic event (~ 1 Myr).

Crystallization age of zircon grains provides only a partial figure of the dynamic of the Parauapebas magmatism.

Tectonic setting

Continental rift (Olszewski et al., 1989; Feio et al., 2012; Martins et al., 2017; Tavares et al., 2018; Toledo et al., 2019; Lacasse et al., 2020).

A back-arc basin setting (Dardenne et al., 1988) is ruled out by detailed analyses of geochemical alteration (Lacasse et al., 2020).

Composition

Mafic-dominant composition (Lacasse et al., 2020).

Basalts produced by the partial melting of a depleted mantle source that assimilated country rocks and underwent fractional crystallization (Lacasse et al., 2020), supporting an intraplate setting.

Layered intrusions

Occurrence of nine well-exposed layered intrusions made up of dunnites, lherzolites, harzburgites, anorthosite and gabbros (Machado et al., 1991; Siepierski and Ferreira Filho, 2020).

Layered intrusions likely form the plumbing system of the Parauapebas LIP.

Silicic magmatism

A-type granitoids emplaced from ca. 2760 Ma to ca. 2730 Ma (Machado et al., 1991; Sardinha et al., 2006; Barros et al., 2009; Feio et al., 2012, 2013).

A-type granitoids rocks represent HT melting of the lower crust. A few HT-LP leucogranites (Sardinha et al., 2006) might correspond to the partial fusion of the upper crust.

Dyke swarms and sills

Not recognized.

Their presence is possible but likely covered by dense vegetation and/or extremely weathered.

Undersaturated magmatism (carbonatites, kimberlite)

Not recognized.

  

LIP characteristics after Bryan and Ernst (2008).

3.2. Depositional environments associated with the emplacement of the Parauapebas LIP

The emplacement of LIPs has long been recognized to be associated with the deposition of BIFs due to the contribution of magmatic activity and hydrothermal circulation as major Fe sources (Abbott and Isley, 2002; Barley et al., 1997; Isley and Abbott, 1999), and the Parauapebas LIP makes no exception. The Parauapebas LIP volcanism was still active at the time of deposition of BIFs and likely promoted hydrothermal circulation (Rossignol et al., 2022). The link between the Parauapebas LIP and Carajás BIFs is further corroborated by the source of Fe that derived from Fe-rich hydrothermal fluids, as shown by extreme positive europium anomalies in BIFs from the Carajás Fm. (Rego et al., 2021). The mafic composition of the Parauapebas LIP (Lacasse et al., 2020) and the contemporaneity between volcanism and the deposition of BIFs of the Carajás Formation further argue for a local hydrothermally-derived Fe source linked with the emplacement of the Parauapebas LIP. BIFs at the base of the Igarapé Bahia Group could also be indicative of sustained hydrothermal activity by the Paraupebas LIP long after the end of magmatic activity.

3.3. Paleomagnetic results

Preliminary paleomagnetic investigations performed on basaltic drill core samples suggest that the Parauapebas LIP was emplaced at a low latitude at ~2.76 – 2.74 Ga, close to the paleoequator (3.4  8.5°; Martins et al., 2021), awaiting confirmation by further investigations on in situ outcrops of the Parauapebas Formation. Such equatorial position agrees with the recognition of carbonates within the Carajás area, a paleoenvironmental indicator (Rego et al., 2021). This preliminary paleomagnetic study highlights two important points: (i) the low-latitude of the Carajás Block at ~2.7 Ga is compatible with the paleolatitude of several other Archean blocks (e.g., Superior and Karelia), supporting the existence of the Superia supercraton (Bleeker, 2003), and (ii) six magnetic field reversals were revealed within the Parauapebas Formation, which suggests an active geodynamo during the Neoarchean (Martins et al., 2021).

3.4. Tectonic evolution

The Carajás BIFs show the large thicknesses variations, ranging from 100 to 400 m throughout the basin (Beisiegel et al., 1973). This argues for a deposition in an active tectonic setting and is corroborated by the overall sedimentary pattern of the Igarapé Bahia Group, which comprises thick and repetitive coarse-grained sediments deposited by downslope debris flows, as well as numerous sedimentary features attesting to high sedimentation rates and slope instability consistent with those usually encountered in active extensional settings (Rossignol et al., 2020). In addition, deposits from the Igarapé Bahia Group are closely associated with major faults, and comprise numerous soft sediment deformations structures potentially indicative of an active tectonic setting (Rossignol et al., 2020). This concurs with the report of tectonic activity that reactivated Mesoarchean structures at ca. 2.75 to 2.73 Ga, either related to transpressional strike-slip shear zones (Marangoanha et al., 2019a; Silva et al., 2020) or to the formation of an active rift basin (Feio et al., 2012; Martins et al., 2017; Olszewski et al., 1989; Tavares et al., 2018; Toledo et al., 2019). This would be consistent with LIP-associated continental rifting observed elsewhere (Campbell, 2005; Cox, 1989; Hill, 1991).

3.5. Links with metallogeny

BIFs deposited in the Carajás Basin represent one of the world’s largest iron deposits (Konhauser et al., 2017). Considering an average BIF density of 3.48·106 g.m-3 (Konhauser et al., 2018), an accumulation rate of 6 m.Myr-1 (compacted sediments), a BIF deposition period of ca. 40 Myrs and a basin dimension ≥ 1.8·1010 m2, we calculated that more than 15,000 Gt (giga tons) of BIFs were deposited as a result of the Parauapebas LIP activity (Rossignol et al., 2023). This quantification should be considered as preliminary given that the accumulation rate and the size of the basin are rough estimates. Despite these uncertainties, our quantification gives a first order estimate of the quantity of IFs deposit. Moreover, the sediment accumulation rate derived from our geochronological results allow to assess the rate of Fe accumulation normalized per unit area and compare it with other IF deposits elsewhere. Considering the average Fe2O3 content of Carajás IFs (56.2 wt%; Rego et al., 2023) gives a Fe flux of 8 g.m-2.y-1 (or 0.15 mol.m-2.y-1) in the Carajás Basin. In the Hamersley Basin, where IF deposition is also assumed to be coeval with subaerial LIP emplacement (Barley et al., 1997; Isley and Abbott, 1999), observed accumulation rates for chemical sediments range between 3 and 15 m.Myr-1 resulting in a net Fe flux comprised between 4 and 22 g.m-2.y-1. This indicates that the Fe flux estimated for the Carajás Basin compares well with those of other large IFs deposits related to LIP emplacement.

Additional metallogenetic deposits are represented by platinum-group elements (PGE)-mineralized ultramafic layered intrusions which have a general lenticular shape with dimensions up to ~ 30 km long and up to ~ 4 km wide (Mansur et al., 2020 and references therein; and http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/20jul).

4. Conclusions

During the Neoarchean, at ca. 2.7 Ga, the Parauapebas Large Igneous Province probably covered a large part of the eastern Amazonia Craton, located close to the paleoequator. The Parauapebas LIP controlled nearby environments by releasing a large amount of iron in seawater through hydrothermal activity. This in turn favored the deposition of IFs and formed one of the world largest iron deposits. Finally, these preliminary investigations bring insights on Archean LIPs and the evolution of the inner Earth by testing the presence of an active Archean geodynamo.

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